Bachelor's theses

A key assumption in predictive coding is that the brain uses an internal model to generate predictions of incoming sensory input. Predictions are then compared to actual sensory input which results in a process where the brain tends to minimize possible prediction error by updating the internal model. Predictive coding seems to provide a basic principle that unifies previously unexplained phenomena with perceptual processes. The aim of is thesis is to review the theory of predictive coding at different levels of cognition and behavior in the light of neuropsychological research. Predictive coding has gained most of its empirical support from research regarding visual and auditory system. Research has shown that predictive coding can provide an explanation for the varying receptive field properties of neurons in the primary visual cortex that appear to be more sensitive to contextual information than previously expected. In the auditory system, the mismatch negativity is one of the most researched brain response related to auditory expectations and prediction error processing that has proven how auditory system is sensitive to learning complex regularities and detecting deviations. Higher-level cognitive applications of predictive coding include, for example, music perception and religious experiences. According to predictive coding, listening to music is an active process in which the motor system is involved in predicting the rhythmic regularities of music. The motor system plays an important role in the theory of predictive coding as the execution of movements is seen as a form of error minimization. The topics covered in this thesis paint an ambitious picture of the explanatory power of predictive coding, but also of its problems. There is a need for more precisely detailed hypotheses and empirical research in all areas. This is especially evident for the more abstract topics (bodily self-consciousness, religious and spiritual experiences). One major challenge regarding predictive coding is its position as a kind of umbrella term under which many different views are included. These differences in the definition of theoretical concepts can make it difficult for predictive coding to achieve its full potential as a theory.

The purpose of this review was to investigate young elite athletes’ burnout as a phenomenon. The aim was to define the prevalence of burnout, contributing and protective factors into burnout and how burnout effect on young elite athletes’ actions and views on sport. In last couple of decades there have been studies on athletes’ burnout but there are very few studies on young elite athletes’ burnout and there are no previous reviews on the subject. Athletes burnout is defined in three dimensions: physical and/or emotional exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment and sport devaluation. In this review the aim is to determine whether young elite athletes’ burnout has similar features as athletes’ burnout. The literature search was conducted by using the PubMed, the OvidMedline and Google Scholar databases with search terms: athlete burnout, young athlete burnout and adolescent athlete burnout. The criterion of elite athletes was defined: being in the national team, being among the athletes that Olympic committee had selected or studying in sport specialised high school in the Nordic countries. After these criterions there were 11 suitable studies for the review. The results show that as a phenomenon young elite athletes’ burnout is very similar to athletes’ burnout. The results showed only a weak connection between burnout results over time which indicates that burnout is a short-termed syndrome among young elite athletes. However, as a phenomenon burnout is severe. Its prevalence is 12-14 % but when taking the burnout risk group and developing burnout group into account, burnout affect’s almost half of the young elite athletes. Stress and social perfectionism were most common contributing factors for burnout as well as the lack of control over one’s sport and lack of intrinsic motivation. Most common inhibiting factors were resilience which means the ability to adapt and tolerate stress. Also, intrinsic motivation was a key factor into lower burnout scores. These results back up Smith’s cognitive-affective stress theory and Self-determination theory SDT. Burnout’s effects on young elite athletes’ perspectives towards sports were severe and in worst scenarios it can lead to the will to quit sports. Burnout affected to implicit attitudes towards sports. Also, athletes with clinically relevant burnout reported more insomnia symptoms than athletes without clinically relevant burnout but these findings weren’t found in objectively assessed sleep EEG parameters. It’s important that young elite athletes, coaches and supporters are aware of burnout and are able to support young elite athletes in the best possible way.

Tavoitteet: Suotuisa varhainen sosioemotionaalinen kehitys ennustaa alhaisempaa lapsuusiän psyykkistä oireilua ja parempaa koulumenestystä. Riittävät taidot tällä saralla ovat myös edellytyksenä läheisten sosiaalisten suhteiden kehittymiselle. Näyttö prenataalisista riskitekijöistä lapsen sosioemotionaaliselle varhaiskehitykselle on runsasta, mutta tietoa kehitystä suojaavista ja sitä edistävistä tekijöistä on vielä huomattavasti vähemmän. Yksi mahdollinen prenataalinen suojaava tekijä on tietoisen läsnäolon taipumus, millä tiedetään olevan psykologista hyvinvointia edistäviä vaikutuksia. Tämän kirjallisuuskatsauksen tavoitteena oli selvittää, onko prenataalisella tietoisella läsnäololla havaittu olevan yhteyttä lapsen varhaiseen sosioemotionaaliseen kehitykseen kahden ensimmäisen elinvuoden aikana. Menetelmät: Katsauksen artikkelit haettiin Scopus ja PubMed -tietokannoista hakusanoilla ”Mindful*”, ”Pregnan*”, ”Maternal”, ”Antenal”, ”Prenatal”, ”Perinatal”, ”Newborn”, ”Child” ja ”Infant”. Lisäksi hyödynnettiin Google Scholarin ja aiemmin mainittujen hakukoneiden ”samankaltaisia artikkeleita”-toimintoa. Tulokset ja johtopäätökset: Prenataalisella tietoisella läsnäololla näyttäisi tutkimusnäytön perusteella olevan jonkinasteinen yhteys lapsen sosioemotionaaliseen kehitykseen muun muassa varhaisten itsesäätelytaitojen osalta. Tietoisen läsnäolon ulottuvuuksista vähäisempi reaktiivisuus oli kahdessa tutkimuksessa tärkein osa-alue, mutta myös kuvailemisen kyvyn ja tuomitsemattomuuden merkitys nousi esille. Metodologisen vaihtelevuuden ja otosten valikoituneisuuden vuoksi tuloksia voidaan pitää vasta alustavina. Jatkossa tutkimuksiin olisi hyvä sisällyttää myös objektiivisia mittareita kehityksen osalta, ja moniulotteisten mittareiden käyttö on perusteltua. Lisätietoa eri tietoisen läsnäolon ulottuvuuksien merkityksestä ja yhteyttä välittävistä tekijöistä tarvitaan.